Appropriate Technology Resources

Foxfire is the term for the bioluminescence created in the right conditions by a few species of fungi that decay wood.

As a kid, I remember my Grandfather’s Foxfire books, which were an effort  to document the lifestyle, culture, and skills of people in southern Appalachia in a mixture of how-to information from first-person narratives and oral history. The series of Foxfire books come from the Foxfire Magazine, which was created in the late 1960s by Eliot Wigginton and his students in an effort to record and preserve the unique traditional folk culture of the Southern Appalachians. This particular type of knowledge is a kind of social science but, can also be referred to as Appropriate Technology,  as it was specific to the region and needs of its people.

There are regions all over the world in which the needs of its local population vary, but are similar to the needs of other regions. All of these appropriate technologies are very simple and sustainable in their practice. Another term for this phrase could be “sustainable technology” as well.

Can I Buy Green Power in my state?

Click on map through to your state to find out which organizations offer green power in your state. The results will include utility green pricing programs, retail green power products offered in competitive electricity markets, and renewable energy certificate (REC) products sold separate from electricity. For additional information about these distinct products, see the EERE Overview of Green Power Markets.

AK AL AR AZ CA CO CT DC DE FL GA HI IA ID IL IN KS KY LA MA MD ME MI MN MO MS MT NC ND NE NH NJ NM NV NY OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VA VT WA WI WV WY

from The U.S. DOE – Energy Effieciency and Renewable Energy

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AND… don’t forget to check the DSIRE resource:

Federal Incentives

Scientists challenge IPCC biofuel advice

from Biofuel Review: (Posted by Giles Clark, London Friday, 02 November 2007)

Five senior scientists have written to the head of the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Dr R K Pachauri, to highlight what they see as “serious and dangerous deficiencies” in the notes on biofuels in the recently released IPCC AR4 Mitigation book. The concerns of the scientists, and the letter, were revealed on the Grain website (www.grain.org) yesterday (1st November) ahead of the IPCC Synthesis Report’s which is expected to be approved by national delegations this month.
full text of the letter

Their letter highlights that no proof has been given, even when requested from the relevant Author, of the claim in the SPM (Summary for Policy Makers) that biofuel blending, as a policy, measure or instrument, had been “environmentally effective…in at least a number of national cases.”

That claim, being a Brazilian amendment passed at the last IPCC plenary session, has reappeared in a bolder form in the latest UN Global Environment Outlook.

The Transport chapter, they say, omitted to warn that even modest growth of biofuels, by using up farmland or pasture, often leads to cropland as a whole expanding at the expense of natural forests and grassland. The carbon emissions from such land-use change can negate any benefits for decades or centuries. This was occurring in South East Asia, and possibly now in South America, in partial response to EU and US biofuel incentives.

The studies of biofuel emissions balances used by the IPCC did not model the effects of such outcomes. Yet these would need to be included in any assessment of whether biofuel blending programmes or incentives had been “environmentally effective”, said the five scientists.

They are now calling for the full basis for this claim in the SPM to be revealed, or for the claim to be withdrawn.

The IPCC advice also failed to note that growing biofuels was currently a very inefficient use of land for mitigation, compared with growing solid fuel to replace coal. “That is elementary to any discussion of bioenergy,” said Helmut Haberl of Klagenfurt University.

David Pimentel, of Cornell University, added: “Climate change is a most pressing issue for humanity, and world leaders need to take the issue of mitigation much more seriously than they have to date. Having said that, decision-makers need to be given balanced and justified advice. These particular notes, as they stand, will be used to support erroneous and disastrous decisions, and that is simply not right”.

IPCC mitigation book

Freedom Fuels film

Freedom Fuels takes an in-depth, solution orientated look at renewable fuel sources, such as biodiesel, ethanol and vegetable oil. It explores the petroleum industry’s suppression of alternative fuels and examines the potential positive and negative impacts of biofuels.

Download the free full version at Mofilms.org
(Running time: 50 min, File size: 196.05 MB)

Food Deficit for Inefficient Fuels – Thinking Outside the Barrel

Spend a buck and get 30 cents worth of food to make it through ’till lunch. That is synonymous to the energy balance for ethanol production from corn; = 1.3. Let’s just think outside the barrel for a moment, ethanol we can make today from corn kernels is just a sub-mediocre fuel source; the low energy return, the crop’s intensive fertilization/herbicide/pest control for cultivation pollutes waterways, and increased demand drives up food costs (corn prices doubled last year). And anyway, the corn ethanol industry is projected to produce, at most, the equivalent of only 15 billion gallons of fuel by 2017.

Cellulosic ethanol, in theory, is a much better bet. Most of the plant species suitable for producing this kind of ethanol — like switchgrass, a fast- growing plant found throughout the Great Plains — aren’t food crops. And according to a joint study by the US Departments of Agriculture and Energy, we can sustainably grow more than 1 billion tons of such biomass on available farmland. Cellulosic ethanol yields roughly 80 percent more energy than is required to grow and convert it.

more on single-celled biodiesel plants

Algae’s single-celled structure is extremely efficient in use of light and absorption of nutrients. So much so, that algae’s growth and productivity is 30 to 100 times higher than crops like soybeans. Algae production does not compete with agriculture. Algae production facilities are closed and do not require soil for growth, use 99% less water than conventional agriculture, and can be located on non-agricultural land far from water. Since the whole organism converts sunlight into oil, algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two-car garage than an entire football field of soybeans.

The right naturally occurring algae species can, under just the right conditions, produce oil at near-theoretical limits. Their small size (less than 30 microns) and aquatic nature makes them ideal for a large-scale, highly automated, closed production system called a photobioreactor, or PBR. These systems are highly-tuned to provide each cell the precise conditions needed for maximum productivity.

Algae thrive on a high concentration of carbon dioxide. And nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a pollutant of power plants, is a nutrient for the algae. Algae production facilities can thus be fed exhaust gases from fossil fuel power plants, and even breweries, to significantly increase productivity and clean up the air.

The carbohydrates remaining after the oil has been extracted from the algae can be used to make animal feed, ethanol, and potentially sequester carbon.

OTHER INFOS: The algae that produces hydrocarbons is botryococcus braunii China Strain 1 or 2. This particular algae produces hydrocarbons of up to 60% of its DRY WEIGHT. It doubles itself every 2 to 4 days. This algae also has a life cycle that slows down even under the best of conditions. The conditions to generate this algae’s max potential are very specific as to lumogens, (too much or too little sunlight stunts reproduction), food stock for the algae, salinity of the water and particularly temperature. More or less than the ideal 25 deg C stunts growth measurably.

Solix Biofuels, IGV GmbH/GreenFuel Technologies Corporation, Photosynthesis and Optimizing Algae Growth in a Bioreactor, Quinn Edwards, Introduction to Biophotonics, April 28, 2006.pdf, more biofuels research links

Bacterial Hydrogen Production from Biomass

Researchers have designed a microbial electrolysis cell in which bacteria
breaks up acetic acid (a product of plant waste fermentation) to produce
hydrogen gas with a very small electric input from an outside source.
Hydrogen can then be used for fuel cells.

Credit: Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation
from NPR’s 11/16/07 Science Friday

The Fuel-Plant?

excerpt from Frank Weigert, MIT Alumnus (edited for minimal brevity)

No idea in science is truly new. My proposal builds on some 1970s work by Nobelist Melvin Calvin. He found an interesting shrub in the Brazilian rain forest related to the rubber tree. Instead of producing high molecular weight poly(isoprene), it produces trimers. Calvin tapped the plant to produce a latex. He then broke the emulsion, separated the organic and water layers, dried the organic layer and finally poured the liquid hydrocarbon into the fuel tank of a diesel-powered car and drove off. No refining necessary! This plant produced high-grade diesel fuel.

Calvin correctly realized there was not enough rain forest land to grow commercial quantities of this plant. Using only selective breeding, he tried to adapt the plant to grow in the desert. His efforts failed, and the project died. Calvin didn’t have today’s genetic engineering tools. We should use them to bring his vision to reality. I propose that a genetically engineered fuel-plant can solve our energy crisis.

The fuel-plant eliminates any greenhouse gas problem. It consumes, or fixes, atmospheric while it grows. The CO2 emitted by burning its hydrocarbon merely regenerates the CO2 it previously fixed. Over the course of a year there is no net CO2 emission. It solves the energy storage problem without batteries or dams. Hydrocarbons store integrated solar energy in a very compact and easy to use form. It puts OPEC out of business. Why pay a cartel when you can grow your own?

Parts of the energy industry would change beyond recognition. Exploration and drilling for oil would disappear as would coal mining. The tanker fleet would remain to harvest the individual fuel containers and bring them to shore. If fish stocks continue to dwindle, this fleet provides new employment for men whose life is the sea.

If a container should break or leak, the hydrocarbon is of low enough molecular weight so microorganisms could use it as food. Water pollution due to spillage would no longer be an issue. No more Torrey Canyons or Exxon Valdezes. Refineries would be much simpler with no cracking, reforming, refining, or distillation units. The entire process of readying the raw natural product for use might consist of drying the hydrocarbon and filtering any solids.

The distribution system can remain intact. It will take a generation to switch from internal combustion engines and gasoline to diesel engines and fuel-plant hydrocarbons. Alternatively, existing refineries could use the triterpene as their feedstock and continue making gasoline for existing cars. Since the fuel-plant hydrocarbon contains no sulfur or nitrogen, and has a high H/C ratio, it makes a very sweet crude.

The research to create an economically viable fuel-plant certainly involves risk. No single corporation can expect to retain all the benefits in this new field. A government project like the Human Genome effort might be the appropriate research vehicle. Sun-powered biology has to compete with physics and chemistry research, such as nuclear fission and fusion or clean coal. Political lobbying by entrenched interests should not direct long-range research away from potential gold-mines to protect previous investments. Corn-derived ethanol can never compete economically with a well-designed fuel-plant.

Botryococcus braunii is a family of pelagic (floating) algae that grow in the Indian Ocean. They all make isoprene oligomers. Different strains make them with different average molecular weights. What matters is that the dry weight of the most prolific producing strains is over 70 percent hydrocarbon. This algae truly is a fuel plant.

These hydrocarbons can be burned to either generate electricity or to power cars. They are a much cleaner fuel than coal so existing power stations could shut down much of their post-combustion gear that now scrubs pollution from the vent gases. They would not have to worry about either SO2 or ash. As a transportation fuel, the hydrocarbons could be fed into existing refineries. These could shut down much of the front end investment that removes the impurities from crude oil that damage delicate catalysts downstream. The feed would not have any ash, metals, nitrogen sulfur or phosphorus. It’s a hydrocarbon! Crude oil from older fields can also contain salt water.

The hydrogen balance isn’t all that bad either. C30H48 (isoprene hexamer) needs only four more hydrogen atoms to make two molecules each of octane (C8H18) and toluene (C7H8).

The research agenda needs to determine how fast this plant grows under various environmental conditions. Mutations or genetic engineering would then continuously improve its performance. The maximum growth rate may conflict with the goal of maximum hydrocarbon concentration. Economics would determine the optimum time to harvest the crop.

I have been thinking about how DuPont management directed our R&D during the CFC replacement campaign, and I think that program can teach us about how the world should deal with the CO2 issue.

Greenhouse gas politics has much in common with the CFC ozone controversy of 20 years ago. Both started with scientists doing atmospheric modeling and predicting an adverse effect from a common human activity. The companies involved immediately went into full denial mode. They learned their tactics from the tobacco industry. Rather than spend money to address the problem, it was cheaper to confuse the issue. As long as the products were profitable, why upset the applecart. But when competition reduced CFC profit margins, the major players began to see value in the alternatives.

The atmospheric models didn’t predict an ozone hole over the Antarctic every spring. A bit of reflection showed what went wrong in the modeling. The models considered only homogeneous processes. This was a heterogeneous process. Gases condensed on ice particles and reacted more rapidly there than they did in the gas phase. When Susan Solomon found the predicted anti-correlation between ozone and chlorine around the hole, even the skeptics threw in the towel. The next day DuPont went into full problem-solving mode.

A wise DuPont management gave researchers two rules to guide their activities. One dealt with product, the other with process. They are relevant to the global warming issue as well.

Product: Nothing should change for the ultimate consumer. Or, in the vernacular, Joe Sixpack should not have to buy a new car because his air conditioner’s hose popped lose again. The new fluids must be drop-in replacements for the existing materials. The properties of boiling point, no flammability, and no chlorine reduced the number of possibilities to at most a pair of isomers. Considerations of toxicity and corrosion reduced the number of possibilities to one. All companies came to the same conclusion. No company would be able to tout its product as being better than the competition since everyone would be making the same materials.

Process: Use existing investment as much as possible. Here is where it gets interesting. Each company made a different CFC product mix. They had different expertise and different physical plants. Each came up with a unique way to make the replacements. Each was optimum to the specific company.

How does this apply to global warming? Let us consider electricity and transportation separately.

The consumer doesn’t care how electricity is made as long as his or her gadget turns on when plugged into the wall socket. Electricity from hydro, nuclear, coal, geothermal, photovoltaics, wind, tides, or natural gas is all the same to the end user. Shut down a coal-burning plant and start up a nuke and the consumer does not have to buy a new computer. Local photovoltaic would require the consumer to buy and maintain an expensive new investment. The current payback time is quite long, well beyond the horizon of most home owners when compared with fixing up their deck.

Transportation fuels are not interchangeable. If your local filling station no longer pumps gasoline, your car becomes a lawn ornament. You can’t fuel today’s car with 100 percent ethanol. It would need a new engine. Jets are never going to fly on ethanol. It weighs too much for the energy it contains. You aren’t going to fuel your home with ethanol instead of oil either. You’d need a new fuel tank and a new furnace and all new piping between them. Do you really want a hundred gallons of flammable ethanol in your basement? Today’s infrastructure can’t run on hydrogen either. America’s transportation infrastructure now runs on hydrocarbons. It will continue to do so. The transportation fuel of the future will be a hydrocarbon so close to gasoline and diesel that it will serve as a drop-in replacement.

The world has a huge sunk investment in coal-burning plants to generate electricity. While wind and solar panels can and should contribute to capacity expansions, we must find greener fuels to use in the existing investment. A hydrocarbon derived from biomass makes a dandy replacement for coal. Not only does it have more energy per pound, it does not have any sulfur, mercury, metals or ash. The back-end infrastructure devoted to cleaning up the combustion gases can be shut down. Solid waste disposal becomes much easier. Electricity generation becomes greener. Sequestration becomes unnecessary.

The world’s investment in petroleum refining is enormous. Fermentation of biomass to make ethanol can make absolutely no use of this equipment. Again, a plant-based hydrocarbon can use existing petroleum refining investments. The front end that treats crude oil so it won’t damage sensitive downstream catalysts won’t be necessary. The hydrocarbon can go directly to the acid cracking units after a superficial drying step. The output can be manipulated to give the mixture of gasoline and diesel desired by the marketplace. The asphalt industry goes out of business because there will no longer be any heavies to dispose of.

Genetic engineering is an infant field. What we can do today will seem trivial to society fifty years from now if we devote some investment to modifying algae to grow fuel rather than to sequencing animals from aardvarks to zebras.

The United States is dividing into two camps as opposed to each other as Christianity and Islam but over the issue of global warming. Most scientists agree it is a problem. Many despair over finding any solution. A book presenting this point of view is Suicidal Planet by Mayer Hillman et. al. At the other extreme is the book The Politically Incorrect Guide to Global Warming by Christopher Horner, which rehashes every negative opinion that has ever been presented. A good recent article, though a bit on the pessimistic side, is by Nate Lewis, a Caltech chemistry professor. In my opinion he is a bit too polite in his criticism of the nuclear and coal industries. It is available as a PDF online. I highly recommend it. Scientists who pontificate on the issue need to be aware of the opposition lest they become parodies subject to ridicule by the economic right.

Capitalism is the cause of this problem. Its values should not be a major factor in determining a solution. Capitalism is about a deal between a buyer and a seller. It has no mechanism to deal with the concept of harm to uninvolved third parties. This is most easily seen in the issue of pollution. Consider a company with a barrel of highly toxic waste. The EPA specifies an expensive disposal process. The CEO sees this expense as coming right out of his bonus. Dumping it on some back road is much cheaper. The customer doesn’t care, as long as the manufacturer allocates some of the savings to lowering the price. Who cares if some yokels die of heavy metal poisoning! They play no role in the capitalist model. When the United States decided to abolish slavery, Abraham Lincoln did not establish a cap and trade policy for slaves. He abolished the practice. He did not even compensate slave owners for the property he freed. Of course it took a long, bloody war to do this. Hopefully solving the global warming problem will not require such drastic action, but it might.

It might be easier to ban activities which are not yet a major issue, but might be in the future. Let’s ban mining of oil shale and tar sands now, rather than wait for an industry to develop using these high carbon fuels. Put coal mine owners on notice that there will be no new ones. Ask mine owners to either put out the fire burning under Centralia, PA, or at least make use of the heat it is now producing. Do not allow new oil well drilling in pristine sites.

Once industry can’t invest in conventional activities, it will use existing cash flow to try to stay in business in unconventional ways, or return it to shareholders for them to do so.